In Tennant Creek (our second field site) the creole is referred to as Wumpurrarni English, henceforth WE, and varies from acrolectal (more like English) to basilectal (a heavy creole) (see e.g., Disbray and Simpson, 2004 Disbray, 2009) 2. Another example is Roper River Kriol spoken in the Ngukurr region. There are a number of locally named varieties of Kriol, for example in Yakanarra (one of our field sites), the variety is called Fitzroy Valley Kriol (or Kimberley Kriol) (see e.g., Hudson, 1985), henceforth FVKriol. Creole varieties on mainland Australia are referred to as Kriol, the name being based on the word creole 1. In some places, traditional languages continue to be acquired as first languages by the current generation of children, and in other places, language shift to contact varieties, including mixed languages and local creole varieties, has taken place, or is in process (see e.g., McConvell and Thieberger, 2001). In more remote locations, particularly in central and northern Australia, the picture is more complex. Aboriginal English is largely mutually intelligible with standard Australian English, and in its “lightest” styles differs only in minor ways from the standard, usually in pronunciation, lexis, grammatical patterns, speech pragmatics and conceptualization (see e.g., Kaldor and Malcolm, 1982 Malcolm and Kaldor, 1991 Eades, 1996 Malcolm and Sharifian, 2002, 2007 McGregor, 2004 Sharifian, 2005 Butcher, 2008). “Aboriginal English” is an umbrella term, covering a range of varieties in different sociolinguistic and geographic settings (see Malcolm and Kaldor, 1991).

Instead, local varieties of Aboriginal English are spoken as in-community and in-family codes.

In the cities and metropolitan areas, particularly along the populated coastlines of Australia, which were settled early by Europeans, traditional languages have long ceased to be spoken as the primary means of day-to-day communication. Indigenous children in Australia grow up in a range of diverse language settings. As such, we contribute to understandings of normative language development for non-Western, non middle-class children in multilingual contexts. They also elucidate how children's language and linguistic input varies diachronically across time. The study's findings contribute to providing a more detailed picture of the multilingual practices at Yakanarra and Tennant Creek, with implications for understanding broader processes of language shift. For measures of morphosyntactic complexity (MLU), children and caregivers in Tennant Creek use more complex utterances at Time 2, while caregivers in Yakanarra show less complexity in their language at that time point. The two communities also show differing trends in terms of conversational load (MLT ratio). In Tennant Creek, children and caregivers use longer turns at Time 2, while in Yakanarra the picture is more variable. Results show that for measures of turn length (MLT), there are notable differences between the two communities for both the focus children and their caregivers. At both time points, the local creole varieties are the preferred codes of communication for the dyads in this study, although there is some use of the traditional language in both communities. We use longitudinal data from two time-points, approximately 2 years apart, to explore changes in adult input over time and developmental patterns in the children's speech. The study further highlights child-caregiver interactions as a site of importance in understanding the broader processes of language shift. The study focuses on language input from primary caregivers to a group of preschool children, and on the children's productive language. In both communities, processes of language shift are underway from a traditional language (Walmajarri and Warumungu, respectively) to a local creole variety (Fitzroy Valley Kriol and Wumpurrarni English, respectively). This paper reports on a study in two remote multilingual Indigenous Australian communities: Yakanarra in the Kimberley region of Western Australia and Tennant Creek in the Barkly region of the Northern Territory.

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